Pointers and Refrences

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Artificial Intelligence (Problem Solving)

  The term Artificial Intelligence was coined by John McCarthy (1927-2011) – who is often also referred to as the Father of AI. The term became established when it was chosen as the topic of a summer seminar, known as the  Dartmouth conference , which was organized by McCarthy and others in 1956 at Dartmouth College in New Hampshire. In the proposal to organize the seminar, McCarthy continued with Turing's argument about automated computation. The proposal contains the following crucial statement: “The study is to proceed on the basis of the conjecture that every aspect of learning or any other feature of intelligence can in principle be so precisely described that a machine can be made to simulate it.” In other words, any element of intelligence can be broken down into small steps so that each of the steps is as such so simple and “mechanical” that it can be written down as a computer program. This statement was, and is still today, a conjecture, which means that we can’t re...
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Data Structures for Coding Interviews

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Computer science in plain English To really understand how data structures  work , we're going to derive each of them from scratch. Starting with bits. Don't worry—we'll skip the convoluted academic jargon and proofs. We'll cover: Random Access Memory Binary Numbers Fixed-Width Integers Arrays Strings Pointers Dynamic Arrays Linked Lists Hash Tables Random Access Memory (RAM) When a computer is running code, it needs to keep track of  variables  (numbers, strings, arrays, etc.). Variables are stored in  random access memory  ( RAM ). We sometimes call RAM "working memory" or just "memory." RAM is  not  where mp3s and apps get stored. In addition to "memory," your computer has  storage  (sometimes called "persistent storage" or "disk"). While  memory  is where we keep the variables our  function s allocate as they crunch data for us,  storage  is where we keep  files  like mp3s, videos, Word documents, and ev...
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Dynamic Array

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  Other names: array list, growable array, resizable array, mutable array Quick reference Average Case Worst Case space O(n) O ( n ) O(n) O ( n ) lookup O(1) O ( 1 ) O(1) O ( 1 ) append O(1) O ( 1 ) O(n) O ( n ) insert O(n) O ( n ) O(n) O ( n ) delete O(n) O ( n ) O(n) O ( n ) A  dynamic array  is an  array  with a big improvement: automatic resizing. One limitation of arrays is that they're  fixed size , meaning you need to specify the number of elements your array will hold ahead of time. A dynamic array expands as you add more elements. So you  don't  need to determine the size ahead of time. Strengths: Fast lookups . Just like arrays, retrieving the element at a given index takes  O(1) O ( 1 )  time. Variable size . You can add as many items as you want, and the dynamic array will expand to hold them. Cache-friendly . Just like arrays, dynamic arrays place items right next to each other in memory, making efficient use of caches. Weak...
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